Mosaics of the 4th century BC are found in the Macedonian palace-city of Aegae, and they enriched the floors of Hellenistic villas, and Roman dwellings from Britain to Dura-Europos.
Splendid mosaic floors are found in Roman villas across north Africa.
In Rome, Nero and his architects used mosaics to cover the surfaces of
walls and ceilings in the Domus Aurea, built AD 64. Mosaics of the 4th century BC are found in the Macedonian palace-city of Aegae, and they enriched the floors of Hellenistic villas, and Roman dwellings from Britain to Dura-Europos.
Splendid mosaic floors are found in Roman villas across north Africa.
In Rome, Nero and his architects used mosaics to cover the surfaces of
walls and ceilings in the Domus Aurea, built AD 64.
The mosaics of the Villa Romana del Casale near Piazza Armerina in Sicily are the largest collection of late Roman mosaics in the world and are protected as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The large villa rustica, which was probably owned by Emperor Maximian,
was largely built in the early 4th century. The mosaics were covered
and protected by a landslide in the 12th century for 700 years. The
most important pieces are the Circus Scene, the 64 m long Great Hunting Scene, the Little Hunt, the Labours of Hercules and the famous Bikini Girls,
showing girls in modern-looking bikinis. The peristyle, the imperial
apartements and the thermae were also decorated with ornamental and
mythological mosaics. Other important examples of Roman mosaic art in Sicily were unearthed on the Piazza Vittoria in Palermo where two houses were discovered. The most important scenes here depicted Orpheus, Alexander the Great's Hunt and the Four Seasons.
In 2000 archaeologists working in Leptis Magna, Libya
uncovered a 30 ft length of five colorful mosaics created during the
1st or 2nd century. The mosaics show a warrior in combat with a deer,
four young men wrestling a wild bull to the ground, and a gladiator
resting in a state of fatigue, staring at his slain opponent. The
mosaics decorated the walls of a cold plunge pool in a bath house
within a Roman villa. The gladiator mosaic is noted by scholars as one
of the finest examples of mosaic art ever seen — a "masterpiece
comparable in quality with the Alexander mosaic in Pompeii."
Early Christian art
With the building of Christian basilicas in the late 4th century,
wall and ceiling mosaics were adapted to Christian uses. The earliest
examples, such as those of the first basilica of St. Peter and St. Paul
were all destroyed, but the mosaics of Santa Constanza and Santa Pudenziana,
both from the 4th century, survived. The winemaking putti in the
ambulatory of Santa Constanza still follow the classical tradition (ie.
feast of Bacchus). Another great Constantinian basilica, the Church of the Nativity in Betlehem partially preserved its original mosaic floor with typical Roman geometric motifs. The so-called Tomb of the Julii, near the crypt beneath St Peter's Basilica, is a fourth-century vaulted tomb with wall and ceiling mosaics that are given Christian interpretations. The former Tomb of Galerius in Thessaloniki,
converted into a Christian church during the course of the 4th century,
was embellished with very high artistic quality mosaics. Only fragments
survived of the original decoration, especially a band depicting saints
with hands raised in prayer, in front of complex architectural
fantasies.
In the following century Ravenna, the capital of the Western Roman Empire, became the centre of late Roman mosaic art (see details in Ravenna section). Milan also served as the capital of the western empire in the 4th century. In the St Aquilinus Chapel of the Basilica of San Lorenzo mosaics executed in the late 4th-early 5th centuries, depict Christ with the Apostles and the Abduction of Elijah;
these mosaics are outstanding for their bright colors, naturalism and
adherence to the classical canons of order and proportion.
Albingaunum was the main Roman port of Liguria.
The octagonal baptistry of the town was decorated in the 5th century
with high quality blue and white mosaics representing the Apostles. The
surviving remains are fragmentary.
A mosaic pavement depicting humans, animals and plants from the original fourth-century cathedral of Aquileia
have survived in the later medieval church. This mosaic adopts pagan
motifs such as the Nilotic scene but behind the traditional
naturalistic content is Christian symbolism (ichthys, fisherman). The sixth-century early Christian basilicas of Sant' Eufemia and Santa Maria delle Grazie in Grado also have mosaic floors.
Ravenna
In the 5th century Ravenna, the capital of the Western Roman Empire, became the centre of late Roman mosaic art. The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia
was decorated with mosaics of high artistic quality in 425-430. The
vaults of the small, cross-shaped structure are clad with mosaics on
blue background. The central motif above the crossing is a golden cross
in the middle of the stary sky. Another great building established by Galla Placidia was the Church of San Giovanni Evangelista.
She erected it in fulfillment of a vow that she made having escaped
from a deadly storm in 425 on the sea voyage from Constantinople to
Ravenna. The mosaics depicted the storm, portraits of members of the
western and eastern imperial family and the bishop of Ravenna, Peter Chrysologus. They are only known from Renaissance sources because they were destroyed in 1569.
Ostrogoths kept alive the tradition in the sixth century, as the mosaics of the Arian Baptistry, Baptistry of Neon, Archiepiscopal Chapel, and the earlier phase mosaics in the Basilica of San Vitale and Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo testify.
After 539 Ravenna was conquered by the Byzantine Empire and became the seat of the Exarchate of Ravenna.
The greatest development of Christian mosaics unfolded in the second
half of the 6th century. Outstanding examples of Byzantine mosaic art
are the later phase mosaics in the Basilica of San Vitale and Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo. The mosaic depicting Emperor Justinian I and Empress Theodora in the Basilica of San Vitale were executed shortly after the Byzantine conquest. The mosaics of the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe were made around 549. The anti-Arian theme is obvious in the apse mosaic of San Michele in Affricisco, executed in 545-547 (largely destroyed, the remains in Berlin).
The last example of Byzantine mosaics in Ravenna was commissioned by bishop Reparatus between 673-79 in the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe. The mosaic panel in the apse showing the bishop with Emperor Constantine IV is obviously an imitation of the Justinian panel in San Vitale.
Byzantine mosaics
Mosaics were more central to Byzantine culture than to that of
Western Europe. Byzantine church interiors were generally covered with
golden mosaics. Mosaic art flourished in the Byzantine Empire
from the 6th to the 15th century. The majority of Byzantine mosaics
were destroyed without trace during wars and conquests, but the
surviving remains still form a fine collection.
The buildings of Emperor Justinian like the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and the Nea Church in Jerusalem
were certainly embellished with mosaics but none of these survived.
Probably the earliest example of Byzantine mosaic art can be found in
the Saint Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai. On the upper wall Moses is shown in two panels on a landscape background. In the apse we can see the Transfiguration of Jesus
on a golden background. The apse is surrounded with bands containing
medallions of apostles and prophets, and two contemporary figure,
"Abbot Longinos" and "John the Deacon". The mosaic was probably created
in 565/6.
Important fragments survived from the mosaic floor of the Great Palace of Constantinople
which was commissioned during Justinian's reign. The figures, animals,
plants all are entirely classical but they are scattered before a plain
background. The portrait of a moustached man, probably a Gothic
chieftain, is considered the most important surviving mosaic of the
Justinian age. The so-called small sekreton of the palace was built during Justin II's
reign around 565-577. Some fragments survive from the mosaics of this
vaulted room. The vine scroll motifs are very similar to those in the
Santa Constanza and they still closely follow the Classical tradition.
There are remains of floral decoration in the Panayia Acheiropoietos Church in Thessaloniki (5-6th centuries).
In the 6th century, Ravenna, the capital of Byzantine Italy, became the centre of mosaic making. Istria also boasts some important examples from this era. The Euphrasian Basilica in Parentium was built in the middle of the 6th century and decorated with mosaics depicting the Theotokos flanked by angels and saints.
Fragments remain from the mosaics of the Church of Santa Maria Formosa in Pola. These pieces were made during the 6th century by artists from Constantinople. Their pure Byzantine style is different than the contemporary Ravennate mosaics.
A pre- Iconoclastic depiction of St. Demetrios at the Aghios Demetrios Basilica.
Very few early Byzantine mosaics survived the Iconoclastic destruction of the 8th century. Among the rare examples are the 6th century Christ in majesty (or Ezekiel's Vision) mosaic in the apse of the Osios David Church in Thessaloniki that was hidden behind mortar during those dangerous times. The mosaics of the Hagios Demetrios Church, which were made between 634 and 730, also escaped destruction. Unusually almost all represent Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki, often with suppliants before him.
In the Iconoclastic
era, figural mosaics were also condemned as idolatry. The Iconoclastic
churches were embellished with plain gold mosaics with only one great
cross in the apse like the Hagia Irene in Constantinople (after 740). There were similar crosses in the apses of the Hagia Sophia Church in Thessaloniki and in the Church of the Dormition in Nicaea. The crosses were substituted with the image of the Theotokos in both churches after the victory of the Iconodules (787-797 and in 8-9th centuries respectively, the Dormition church was totally destroyed in 1922).
A similar Theotokos image flanked by two archangels were made for the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople
in 867. The dedication inscription says: "The images which the
impostors had cast down here pious emperors have again set up." In the
870s the so-called large sekreton of the Great Palace of Constantinople was decorated with the images of the four great iconodule patriarchs.
The post-Iconoclastic era was the heyday of Byzantine art with the most beautiful mosaics executed. The mosaics of the Macedonian Renaissance
(867-1056) carefully mingled traditionalism with innovation.
Constantinopolitan mosaics of this age followed the decoration scheme
first used in Emperor Basil I's Nea Church.
Not only this prototype was later totally destroyed but each surviving
composition is battered so it is necessary to move from church to
church to reconstruct the system.
An interesting set of Macedonian-era mosaics make up the decoration of the Hosios Loukas
Monastery. In the narthex there is the Crucifixion, the Pantokrator and
the Anastasis above the doors, while in the church the Theotokos
(apse), Pentecost, scenes from Christ's life and ermit St Loukas (all
executed before 1048). The scenes are treated with a minimum of detail
and the panels are dominated with the gold setting.
Detail of mosaic from Nea Moni Monastery
The Nea Moni Monastery on Chios was established by Constantine Monomachos
in 1043-1056. The exceptional mosaic decoration of the dome showing
probably the nine orders of the angels was destroyed in 1822 but other
panels survived (Theotokos with raised hands, four evangelists with
seraphim, scenes from Christ's life and an interesting Anastasis where
King Salomon bears resemblance to Constantine Monomachos). In
comparison with Osios Loukas Nea Moni mosaics contain more figures,
detail, landscape and setting.
The Daphni Monastery
houses the best preserved complex of mosaics from the early Comnenan
period (ca. 1100) when the austere and hieratic manner typical for the Macedonian epoch and represented by the awesome Christ Pantocrator image inside the dome, was metamorphosing into a more intimate and delicate style, of which The Angel before St Joachim — with its pastoral backdrop, harmonious gestures and pensive lyricism — is considered a superb example.
The 9th and 10th century mosaics of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople
are truly classical Byzantine artworks. The north and south tympana
beneath the dome was decorated with figures of prophets, saints and
patriarchs. Above the principal door from the narthex we can see an Emperor kneeling before Christ (late 9th or early 10th century). Above the door from the soutwest vestibule to the narthex another mosaic shows the Theotokos with Iustinian and Constantine. Iustinian is offering the model of the church to Mary while Constantine
is helding the model of the city in his hand. Both emperors are
beardless - this is an example for conscious archaization as
contemporary Byzantine rulers were bearded. A mosaic panel on the
gallery shows Christ with Constantine Monomachos and Empress Zoe (1042-1055). The emperor gives a bulging money sack to Christ offering a donation for the church.
The dome of the Hagia Sophia Church in Thessaloniki is decorated with an Ascension mosaic (c. 885). The composition resembles the great baptistries in Ravenna,
with apostles standing between palms and Christ in the middle. The
scheme is somewhat unusual as the standard post-Iconoclastic formula
for domes contained only the image of the Pantokrator.
There are very few existing mosaics from the Komnenian period
but this paucity must be due to accidents of survival and gives a
misleading impression. The only surviving 12th century mosaic work in Constantinople is a panel in Hagia Sophia depicting Emperor John II and Empress Eirene with the Theotokos
(1122-34). The empress with her long braided hair and rosy cheeks is
especially capturing. It must be a life-like portrayal because Eirene
was really a redhead as her original Hungarian name, Piroska shows. The adjacent portrait of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos on a pier (from 1122) is similarly personal. The imperial mausoleum of the Komnenos dynasty, the Pantokrator Monastery
was certainly decorated with great mosaics but these were later
destroyed. The lack of Komnenian mosaics outside the capital is even
more apparent. There is only a "Communion of the Apostles" in the apse
of the cathedral of Serres.
A striking technical innovation of the Komnenian period was the
production of very precious, miniature mosaic icons. In these icons the
small tesserae (with sides of 1 mm or less) were set on wax or resin on
a wooden panel. These products of extraordinary craftmanship were
intended for private devotion. The Louvre Transfiguration is a very fine example from the late 12th century. The miniature mosaic of Christ in the Museo Nazionale at Florence illustrates the more gentle, humanistic conception of Christ which appeared in the 12th century.
The sack of Constantinople in 1204 caused the decline of mosaic art
for the next five decades. After the reconquest of the city by Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1261 the Hagia Sophia was restored and a beautiful new Deesis
was made on the south galery. This huge mosaic panel with figures two
and a half times lifesize is really overwhelming due to its grand scale
and superlative craftmanship. The Hagia Sophia Deesis is probably the most famous Byzantine mosaic in Constantinople.
The Pammakaristos Monastery was restored by Michael Glabas, an imperial official, in the late 13th century. Only the mosaic decoration of small burial chapel (Parekklesion)
of Glabas survived. This domed chapel was built by his widow, Martha
around 1304-08. In the miniature dome the traditional Pantokrator can
be seen with twelve prophets beneath. Unusually the apse is decorated
with a Deesis, probably due to the funerary function of the chapel.
The Church of the Holy Apostles in Thessaloniki
was built in 1310-14. Although some vandal systematically removed the
gold tesserae of the background it can be seen that the Pantokrator and
the prophets in the dome follow the traditional Byzantine pattern. Many
details are similar to the Pammakaristos mosaics so it is supposed that
the same team of mosaicists worked in both buildings. Another building
with a related mosaic decoration is the Theotokos Paregoritissa Church in Arta. The church was established by the Despot of Epirus in 1294-96. In the dome is the traditional stern Pantokrator, with prophets and cherubim below.
The greatest mosaic work of the Palaiologian Renessaince is the decoration of the Chora Church in Constantinople.
Although the mosaics of the naos have not survived except three panels,
the decoration of the exonarthex and the esonarthex constitute the most
important full-scale mosaic cycle in Constantinople after the Hagia
Sophia. They were executed around 1320 by the command of Theodore Metochites.
The esonarthex has two fluted domes, specially created to provide the
ideal setting for the mosaic images of the ancestors of Christ. The
southern one is called the Dome of the Pantokrator while the northern
one is the Dome of the Theotokos. The most important panel of the
esonarthex depicts Theodor Metochites wearing a huge turban,
offering the model of the church to Christ. The walls of both narthexes
are decorated with mosaic cycles from the life of the Virgin and the
life of Christ. These panels show the influence of the Italian trecento on Byzantine art especially the more natural settings, landscapes, figures.
The last Byzantine mosaic work was created for the Hagia Sophia, Constantinople
in the middle of the 14th century. The great eastern arch of the
cathedral collapsed in 1346, bringing down the third of the main dome.
By 1355 not only the big Pantokrator image was restored but new mosaics
were set on the eastern arch depicting the Theotokos, the Baptist and
Emperor John V Palaiologos (discovered only in 1989).
In addition to the large-scale monuments several miniature mosaic
icons of outstanding quality was produced for the Palaiologos court and
nobles. The loveliest examples from the 14th century are Annunciation in the Victoria and Albert Museum and a mosaic diptych in the Cathedral Treasury of Florence representing the Twelve Feasts of the Church.
In the troubled years of the 15th century the fatally weakened
empire could not afford luxurious mosaics. Churches were decorated with
wall-paintings in this era and after the Turkish conquest.
Medieval Rome
Christian mosaic art also flourished in Late Antique and medieval Rome. Fifth century mosaics can be found over the triumphal arch and in the nave of the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore.
The 27 surviving panels of the nave are the most important mosaic cycle
in Rome of this period. Two other important 5th century mosaics are
lost but we know them from 17th century drawings. In the apse mosaic of
Sant'Agata dei Goti (462-472, destroyed in 1589) Christ was seated on a globe with the twelve Apostles flanking him, six on either side. At Sant'Andrea in Catabarbara
(468-483, destroyed in 1686) Christ appeared in the center, flanked on
either side by three Apostles. Four streams flowed from the little
mountain supporting Christ. The original 5th century apse mosaic of the
Santa Sabina was replaced by a very similar fresco by Taddeo Zuccari
in 1559. The composition probably remained unchanged: Christ flanked by
male and female saints, seated on a hill while lambs drinking from a
stream at its feet. All three mosaics had a similar iconography.
6th century pieces are rare in Rome but the mosaics inside the triumphal arch of the basilica of San Lorenzo fuori le mura. The Chapel of Ss. Primo e Feliciano in Santo Stefano Rotondo has very interesting and rare mosaics from the 7th century. This chapel was built by Pope Theodore I as a family burial place.
In the 7-9th centuries Rome fell under the influence of Byzantine art, noticeable on the mosaics of Santa Prassede, Santa Maria in Domnica, Sant'Agnese fuori le Mura, Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, Santi Nereo e Achilleo and the San Venanzio chapel of San Giovanni in Laterano. The great dining hall of Pope Leo III in the Lateran Palace was also decorated with mosaics. They were all destroyed later except for one example, the so-called Triclinio Leoniano of which a copy was made in the 18th century. Another great work of Pope Leo, the apse mosaic of Santa Susanna, depicted Christ with the Pope and Charlemagne on one side, and SS. Susanna and Felicity on the other. It was plastered over during a renovation in 1585.
The fragment of an eighth-century mosaic, the Epiphany is one of the very rare remaining pieces of the medieval decoration of Old St. Peter's Basilica, demolished in the late 16th century. The precious fragment is kept in the sacristy of Santa Maria in Cosmedin. It proves the high artistic quality of the destroyed St. Peter's mosaics.
Apse mosaic in the Santa Maria Maggiore
The last great period of Roman mosaic art was the 12-13th century when Rome
developed its own distinctive artistic style, free from the strict
rules of eastern tradition and with a more realistic portrayal of
figures in the space. Well-known works of this period are the floral
mosaics of the Basilica di San Clemente, the façade of Santa Maria in Trastevere and San Paolo fuori le Mura.
The beautiful apse mosaic of Santa Maria in Trastevere (1140) depicts
Christ and Mary sitting next to each other on the heavenly throne, the
first example of this iconographic scheme. A similar mosaic, Christ
coronating Mary, decorates the apse of Santa Maria Maggiore. It is a work of Jacopo Torriti from 1295. The mosaics of Torriti and Jacopo da Camerino in the apse of San Giovanni in Laterano from 1288-94 were thoroughly restored in 1884. The apse mosaic of San Crisogono is attributed to Pietro Cavallini,
the greatest Roman painter of the 13th century. Six scenes from the
life of Mary in Santa Maria in Trastevere were also executed by
Cavallini in 1290. These mosaics are praised for their realistic
portrayal and attempts of perspective. There is an interesting mosaic
medaillon from 1210 above the gate of the church of San Tommaso in Formis showing Christ enthroned between a white and a black slave. The church belonged to the Order of the Trinitarians which was devoted to ransoming Christian slaves.
The great Navicella mosaic (1305-1313) in the atrium of the Old St. Peter's is attributed to Giotto di Bondone. The giant mosaic, commissioned by Cardinal Jacopo Stefaneschi,
was originally situated on the eastern porch of the old basilica and
occupied the whole wall above the entrance arcade facing the courtyard.
It depicted St. Peter walking on the waters. This extraordinary work
was mainly destroyed during the construction of the new St. Peter's in
the 17th century. Navicella means "little ship" referring to the large
boat which dominated the scene, and whose sail, filled by the storm,
loomed over the horizon. Such a natural representation of a seascape
was known only from ancient works of art.
Sicily
The heyday of mosaic making in Sicily was the age of the independent Norman
kingdom in the 12th century. The Norman kings adopted the Byzantine
tradition of mosaic decoration to enhance the somewhat dubious legality
of their rule. Greek masters working in Sicily developed their own
style, that shows the influence of Western European and Islamic
artistic tendencies. Best examples of Sicilian mosaic art are the Cappella Palatina of Roger II, the Martorana church in Palermo and the cathedrals of Cefalù and Monreale.
The Cappella Palatina clearly shows evidence for blending the
eastern and western styles. The dome (1142-42) and the eastern end of
the church (1143-1154) were decorated with typical Byzantine mosaics
ie. Pantokrator, angels, scenes from the life of Christ. Even the
inscriptions are written in Greek. The narrative scenes of the nave
(Old Testament, life of Sts Peter and Paul) are resembling to the
mosaics of the Old St. Peter's and St. Paul's Basilica in Rome (Latin inscriptions, 1154-66).
The Martorana church (decorated around 1143) looked originally even
more Byzantine although important parts were later demolished. The dome
mosaic is very similar to that of the Cappella Palatina with Christ
enthroned in the middle and four bowed, elongated angels. The Greek
incsriptions, decorative patterns, the evangelists in the squinches are
obviously executed by the same Greek masters who worked on Capella
Palatina. The mosaic depicting Roger II of Sicily, dressed in Byzantine
imperial robes, receiving the crown by Christ was originally in the
demolished narthex together with another panel, the Theotokos with
Georgios of Antiochia, the founder of the church.
In Cefalù
(1148) only the high, French Gothic presbytery was covered with
mosaics: the Pantokrator on the semidome of the apse and cherubim on
the vault. On the walls we can see Latin and Greek saints, with Greek
inscriptions.
The Monreale
mosaics constitute the largest decoration of this kind in Italy,
covering 0,75 hectares with at least 100 million glass and stone
tesserae. This huge work was executed between 1176 and 1186 by the
order of King William II of Sicily.
The iconography of the mosaics in the presbytery is similar to Cefalu
while the pictures in the nave are almost the same as the narrative
scenes in the Cappella Palatina. The Martorana mosaic of Roger II
blessed by Christ was repeated with the figure of King William II
instead of his predecessor. Another panel shows the king offering the
model of the cathedral to the Theotokos.
The Cathedral of Palermo,
rebuilt by Archbishop Walter in the same time (1172-85), was also
decorated with mosaics but none of these survived except the 12th
century image of Madonna del Tocco above the western portal.
The cathedral of Messina,
consecrated in 1197, was also decorated with a great mosaic cycle,
originally on par with Cefalù and Monreale, but heavily damaged and
restored many times later. In the left apse of the same cathedral 14th
century mosaics survived, representing the Madonna and Child between
Saints Agata and Lucy, the Archangels Gabriel and Michael and Queens
Eleonora and Elisabetta.
Southern Italy was also part of the Norman kingdom but great mosaics
did not survive in this area except the fine mosaic pavement of the Otranto
cathedral from 1166, with mosaics tied into a tree of life, mostly
still preserved. The scenes depict biblical characters, warrior kings,
medieval beasts, allegories of the months and working activity. Only
fragments survived from the original mosaic decoration of Amalfi's Norman Cathedral. The mosaic ambos in the churches of Ravello prove that mosaic art was widespread in Southern Italy during the 11-13th centuries.
The palaces of the Norman kings were decorated with mosaics
depicting animals and landscapes. The secular mosaics are seemingly
more Eastern in character than the great religious cycles and show a
strong Persian influence. The most notable examples are the Sala di Ruggero in the Palazzo dei Normanni, Palermo and the Sala della Fontana in the Zisa summer palace, both from the 12th century.
Venice
In parts of Italy, which were under eastern artistic influences, like Sicily and Venice, mosaic making never went out of fashion in the Middle Ages. The whole interior of the St Mark's Basilica
in Venice is clad with elaborate, golden mosaics. The oldest scenes
were executed by Greek masters in the late 11th century but the
majority of the mosaics are works of local artists from the 12-13th
centuries. The decoration of the church was finished only in the 16th
century. One hundred and ten scenes of mosaics in the atrium of St
Mark's were based directly on the miniatures of the Cotton Genesis,
a Byzantine manuscript that was brought to Venice after the sack of
Constantinople (1204). The mosaics were executed in the 1220s.
Other important Venetian mosaics can be found in the Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta in Torcello from the 12th century, and in the Basilical of Santi Maria e Donato in Murano
with a restored apse mosaic from the 12th century and a beautiful
mosaic pavement (1140). The apse of the San Cipriano Church in Murano
was decorated with an impressive golden mosaic from the early 13th
century showing Christ enthroned with Mary, St John and the two patron
saints, Cipriano and Cipriana. When the church was demolished in the
19th century, the mosaic was bought by Frederick William IV of Prussia. It was reassembled in the Friedenskirche of Potsdam in the 1840s.
Trieste was also an important centre of mosaic art. The mosaics in the apse of the Cathedral of San Giusto were laid by master craftsmen from Veneto in the 12-13th centuries.
Medieval Italy
The monastery of Grottaferrata founded by Greek Basilian monks
and consecrated by the Pope in 1024 was decorated with Italo-Byzantine
mosaics, some of which survived in the narthex and the interior. The
mosaics on the triumphal arch portray the Twelve Apostles sitting
beside an empty throne, evoking Christ's ascent to Heaven. It is a
Byzantine work of the 12th century. There is a beautiful 11th century
Deesis above the main portal.
The Abbot of Monte Cassino, Desiderius sent envoys to Constantinople
some time after 1066 to hire expert Byzantine mosaicists for the
decoration of the rebuilt abbey church. According to chronicler Leo of Ostia
the Greek artists decorated the apse, the arch and the vestibule of the
basilica. Their work was admired by contemporaries but was totally
destroyed in later centuries except two fragments depicting greyhounds
(now in the Monte Cassino Museum). "The abbot in his wisdom decided
that great number of young monks in the monastery should be thoroughly
initiated in these arts" - says the chronicler about the role of the
Greeks in the revival of mosaic art in medieval Italy.
In Florence a magnificiant mosaic of the Last Judgement decorates the dome of the Battistero. The earliest mosaics, works of art of many unknown Venetian craftsmen (including probably Cimabue), date from 1225. The covering of the ceiling was probably not completed until the 14th century.
The impressive mosaic of Christ in Majesty, flanked by the Blessed Virgin and St. John the Evangelist in the apse of the cathedral of Pisa was designed by Cimabue
in 1302. It evokes the Monreale mosaics in style. It survived the great
fire of 1595 which destroyed most of the mediveval interior decoration.
Sometimes not only church interiors but façades were also decorated with mosaics in Italy like in the case of the St Mark's Basilica
in Venice (mainly from the 17-19th centuries, but the oldest one from
1270-75, "The burial of St Mark in the first basilica"), the Cathedral of Orvieto (golden Gothic mosaics from the 14th century, many times redone) and the Basilica di San Frediano in Lucca (huge, striking golden mosaic representing the Ascension of Christ with the apostles below, designed by Berlinghiero Berlinghieri in the 13th century). The Cathedral of Spoleto is also decorated on the upper façade with a huge mosaic portraying the Blessing Christ (signed by one Solsternus from 1207).
Western and Central Europe
Beyond the Alpes the first important example of mosaic art was the decoration of the Palatine Chapel in Aachen, commissioned by Charlemagne.
It was completely destroyed in a fire in 1650. A rare example of
surviving Karolingian mosaics is the apsis decoration of the oratory of
Germigny-des-Prés built in 805-806 by Theodulf, bishop of Orléans, a leading figure of Carolingian renaissance. This unique work of art, rediscovered only in the 19th century, had no followers.
A close up of the bottom left corner of the picture above. Click the picture to see the individual tesserae
Later fresco replaced the more labor-intensive technique of mosaic
in Western-Europe, although mosaics were sometimes used as decoration
on medieval cathedrals. The Royal Basilica of the Hungarian kings in Székesfehérvár
(Alba Regia) had a mosaic decoration in the apse. It was probably a
work of Venetian or Ravennese craftsmen, executed in the first decades
of the 11th century. The mosaic was almost totally destroyed together
with the basilica in the 17th century. The Golden Gate of the St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague got its name from the golden 14th century mosaic of the Last Judgement above the portal. It was executed by Venetian craftsmen.
In 2003 remains of a mosaic pavement were discovered under the ruins of the Bizere Monastery near the River Mureş in present-day Romania.
The panels depict real or fantastic animal, floral, solar and geometric
representations. Some archeologists supposed that it was the floor of
an Orthodox church, built some time between the 10th and 11th century.
Other experts claim that it was part of the later Catholic monastery on
the site because it shows the signs of strong Italianate influence. The
monastery was situated that time in the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary.
Renaissance and Baroque
Although mosaics went out of fashion and were substituted by
frescoes, some of the great Renaissance artists also worked with the
old technique. Raffaello's Creation of the World in the dome of the Chigi Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo is a notable example that was executed by a Venetian craftsman, Luigi di Pace.
During the papacy of Clement VIII
(1592-1605), the “Congregazione della Reverenda Fabbrica di San Pietro"
was established, providing an independent organisation charged with
completing the decorations in the newly-built St. Peter's Basilica. Instead of frescoes the cavernous Basilica was mainly decorated with mosaics. Among the explanations are:
- 1) The old St. Peter's Basilica had been decorated with mosaic, as
was common in churches built during the early Christian era; the
seventeenth century followed the tradition to enhance continuity.
- 2) In a church like this with high walls and few windows, mosaics were brighter and reflected more light.
- 3) Mosaics had greater intrinsic longevity than either frescoes or canvases.
- 4) Mosaics had an association with bejeweled decoration, flaunting richness.
The mosaics of St. Peter's often show lively Baroque compositions based on designs or canvases from like Ciro Ferri, Guido Reni, Domenichino, Carlo Maratta, and many others. Raphael is represented by a mosaic replica of this last painting, the Transfiguration. Many different artists contributed to the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century mosaics in St. Peter's, including Giovanni Battista Calandra, Fabio Cristofari (d. 1689), and Pietro Paolo Cristofari (d. 1743).[1] Works of the Fabbrica were often used as papal gifts.
Eastern Orthodox countries
The craft has also been popular in the Eastern Orthodox countries and Russia, inherited as part of the Byzantine tradition. Yaroslav, the Grand Prince of the Kievan Rus' built a large cathedral in his capital, Kiev. The model of the church was the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, and it was also called Saint Sophia Cathedral. It was built mainly by Byzantine master craftsmen, sent by Constantine Monomachos,
between 1037 and 1046. Naturally the more important surfaces in the
interior were decorated with golden mosaics. In the dome we can see the
traditional stern Pantokrator
supported by angels. Between the 12 windows of the drum were apostles
and the four evangelists on the pendentives. The apse is dominated by
an orant Theotokos with a Deesis in three medallions above. Below is a Communion of the Apostles.
Prince Sviatopolk II built St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kiev
in 1108. The mosaics of the church are undoubtedly works of Byzantine
artists. Although the church was destroyed by Soviet authorities,
majority of the panels were preserved. Small parts of ornamental mosaic
decoration from the 12th century survived in the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod but this church was largely decorated with frescoes.
Mosaics stopped being used for church decoration as early as the
12th century in the eastern Slavic countries. Later Russian churches
were decorated with frescoes, similarly than orthodox churches in the
Balkan.
The apse mosaic of the Gelati Monastery in Georgia from c. 1130 is probably the work of Byzantine mosaicist invited by King Demetre I. The fragmentary panel depicting the Theotokos flanked by two archangels looks thoroughly Byzantine (with Greek inscriptions).
Islamic mosaics inside the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (c. 690)
Islamic art
Islamic architecture used mosaic technique to decorate religious buildings and palaces since the Arabs conquered the eastern provinces of the Byzantine Empire in the 7th century. In Syria and Egypt the Arabs were influenced by the great tradition of Roman and Early Christian mosaic art. During the reign of the Umayyad Dynasty mosaic making remained a flourishing art form in Islamic culture. Umayyad era mosaics followed Byzantine models.
The first great religious building of Islam, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem,
which was built between 688-692, was decorated with glass mosaics both
inside and outside. Only parts of the interior decoration survived. The
rich floral motives follow the Roman traditions, and "Islamic only in
the sense that the vocabulary is syncretic and does not include
representation of men or animals."[2]
The Umayyad mosaics of Hisham's Palace closely followed classical traditions
The most important early Islamic mosaic work is the decoration of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, then capital of the Arab Caliphate. The mosque was built between 706 and 715.
The caliph obtained 200 skilled workers from the Byzantine Emperor to
decorate the building. This is evidenced by the partly Byzantine style
of the decoration. The mosaics of the inner courtyard depict the
Paradise with beautiful trees, flowers and small hill towns and
villages in the background. The mosaics include no human figures which
makes them different from the otherwise similar contemporary
Constantinapolitan works. The biggest continuous section survived under
the western arcade of the courtyard. This section is called "Barada
Panel" after the river Barada. It is thought that the mosque used to have the largest golden mosaic in the world, at over 4.000 m². In 1893 a fire damaged the mosque extensively and many mosaics were lost, although some have been restored since.
The mosaics of the Umayyad Mosque gave inspiration to later
Damascene mosaic works. The Dome of the Treasury, which stands in the
mosque courtyard, is covered with fine mosaics, probably dating from
13th or 14th century restoration work. The style of them are strikingly
similar to the Barada Panel. The mausoleum of Sultan Baibars, Madrassa Zahiriyah,
which was built after 1277, is also decorated with a band of golden
floral and architectural mosaics, running around inside the main prayer
hall.[3]
Non-religious Umayyad mosaic works were mainly floor panels which
decorated the palaces of the caliphs and other high-ranking officials.
They were closely modelled after the mosaics of the Roman country
villas, once common in the Eastern Mediterranean. The most superb
example can be found in the bath house of Hisham's Palace, Palestine
which was made around 744. The main panel depicts a large tree and
underneath it a lion attacking a deer (right side) and two deers
peacefully grazing (left side). The panel probably represents good and
bad governance. Mosaics with classical geometric motifs survived in the
bath area of the 8th century Umayyad palace complex in Anjar, Lebanon. At Qastal, near Amman, excavations in 2000 uncovered the earliest known Umayyad mosaics in present-day Jordan, dating probably from the caliphate of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
(685-705). They cover much of the floor of finely decorated building
that probably served as the palace of a local governor. The Qastal
mosaics depict geometrical patterns, trees, animals, fruits and
rosettes. Except for the open courtyard, entrance and staircases, the
floors of the entire palace were covered in mosaics.[4]
Some of the best examples of later Islamic mosaics were produced in Moorish Spain. The golden mosaics in the mihrab and the central dome of the Great Mosque in Corduba have a decidedly Byzantine character. They were made between 965 and 970 by local craftsmen, supervised by a master mosaicist from Constantinople, who was sent by the Byzantine Emperor to the Umayyad Caliph of Spain. The decoration is composed of colourful floral arabesques and wide bands of Arab calligraphy. The mosaics were purported to evoke the glamour of the Great Mosque in Damascus, which was lost for the Umayyad family. [5]
Mosaics generally went out of fashion in the Islamic world after the 8th century but a similar effect was reached by the use of geometric tilework, known as zillij in North Africa and qashani further east.
Reference:
"Mosaic" Wikipedia (en) Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaic
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